On the Reliability of the Old Testament Review

The One-time Attestation is a massive collection of historical narrative, constabulary, poetry and prophecy. Tin can we trust it and what it claims to be about itself?

1 Manuscripts and Fragments
- one.1 Manuscripts After Christ
  - i.1.1 Abisha Scroll (12-11th Century Ad)
  - i.1.2 Genziah Fragments (8th-7th Century Advertizement)
  - 1.1.iii Targum Onkelos (5th Century)
  - 1.1.4 Codex Ephraemi (5th Century Advertizement)
  - one.1.5 Codex Alexandrinus (fifth - 4th Century Advertising)
  - ane.i.half-dozen Codex Sinaiticus (quaternary Century Advert)
  - 1.1.7 Codex Vaticanus (4th Century AD)
  - 1.ane.8 Masada Manuscripts (1st Century Advertizing)
  - 1.i.9 Nahal Hever Scrolls (1st Century AD - 1st Century BC)
- 1.2 Manuscripts Before Christ
  - 1.2.i Palaeo-Genesis (1st Century BC)
  - one.2.two Palaeo-Leviticus (2d-1st Century BC)
  - 1.two.3 Phylacteries (2nd-1st Century)
  - 1.2.iv Nash Papyrus (2nd Century BC)
  - one.2.5 Great Isaiah Ringlet (tertiary-second Century BC)
  - 1.2.vi Exod-Lev Fragments (4th-3rd Century BC)
  - 1.2.7 Ketef Hinnom Scrolls (7th-6th Century BC)
2 Significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls
- 2.one Isaiah 53
- 2.two Messianic Apocalypse Linked with Luke
three Authorship of the Torah
- three.ane Archaeology of Linguistic communication
- 3.2 Internal Affirmation
- iii.3 New Testament Affirmation
four Addressing Arguments Against Reliability
- 4.1 Disagreement Between Manuscripts.
5 Sources
- 5.i Academic Sources

Manuscripts and Fragments

Manuscripts After Christ

Abisha Coil (12-11th Century AD)

The Abisha Scroll is the primeval extant manuscript of the Samaritan Pentateuch.

"Although the coil gives the advent of "great artifact" and the scribal note dates the scroll to 1065 C.E., a pregnant portion of modernistic research dates the scroll to no earlier than the heart of the twelfth century C.Eastward. Even if it cannot be attributed to the swell-grandson of Aaron, the scroll's great age and its special place within the Samaritan community make the gyre worthy of loftier regard." ^{[Bookish Sources ane]}

- Giles Anderson

Genziah Fragments (8th-7th Century AD)

This collection of manuscripts has been expanding since 1981, with a whopping 400,000 fragments discovered from thousands of different ancient writings^{[Academic Sources two]}. The best Biblical fragments are that of the Onetime Testament that appointment to the 7th or 8th centuries. ^{[Academic Sources 3]}

Targum Onkelos (5th Century)

Targums are Jewish translations of the scriptures that became increasingly common as the Aramaic Language began to die off The Targum was originally thought to accept been written in the 2nd century, however, recent study has shown it was more likely to accept been written effectually the 5th century.^{[Academic Sources 4]}

Codex Ephraemi (5th Century AD)

This codex dates to around 450 AD and is the latest of the Big 4 - the iv earliest codices of the Bible.^{[Academic Sources five]}

Codex Alexandrinus (5th - 4th Century AD)

Alexandrinus is the third of the Big Iv. It dates from virtually the late 4th century to the mid 5th century.^{[Bookish Sources 6]}

Codex Sinaiticus (quaternary Century AD)

This codex is the second of the Big Four and was composed by the Alexandrian school of Christians effectually 360 AD, the same group that produced Alexandrinus.^{[Academic Sources 7]}

In 1844, Count von Tishchendorf was at St. Catherines monastery, at Mt. Sinai, in the Library, when he noticed the monks using manuscripts leaves to keep a burn down burning. He later saw they were Septuagint Greek manuscripts. He was able to secure the remaining leaves, he was informed 2 baskets had already been burned.

Codex Vaticanus (4th Century AD)

Vaticanus is the first of the Big Four and is considered the earliest consummate copy of the Bible, dating to almost 350 Ad.^{[Academic Sources 8]}

Napoleon carried off this codex to Paris as war booty, but was returned after his death in 1815. Tischendorf viewed the document for a few hours in 1867.

Masada Manuscripts (1st Century AD)

In 1955 and 56, two surveys were done at the site of Masada, the infamous site of the final defeat of the Jewish forces which saw the end of the Jewish Defection. A whole diverseness of Old Testament manuscripts were discovered, the earliest of which engagement back to the offset century AD.^{[Bookish Sources 9]}

Nahal Hever Scrolls (1st Century Advert - 1st Century BC)

The Nahal Hever cave was 1 of the caves of the Expressionless Sea Scrolls, found several years subsequently the initial discovery of the first Scrolls. At least 6 of the manuscripts appointment to the Herodian Era (55 BC - 94 AD)^{[Academic Sources 10]}

Manuscripts Before Christ

Palaeo-Genesis (1st Century BC)

Palaeo-Genesis (technically chosen Plate 275/i) is a fragment of Genesis establish in Cave four of the Dead Sea Scrolls drove.^{[Bookish Sources 11]}

Palaeo-Leviticus (second-1st Century BC)

These are a collection of fragments too found in Cave 4 of the Dead Sea Scrolls collection. They are numerous and are from the Book of Leviticus They appointment dorsum to the Herodian Period. ^{[Academic Sources 12]}

Phylacteries (second-1st Century)

The Phylacteries (also known every bit the Tefillin) are leather capsules containing scrolls with excerpts of biblical texts. They too were found in Cave iv of the Dead Bounding main Scrolls and are amongst the oldest of the fragments found at those caves.^{[Academic Sources 13]}

Nash Papyrus (2nd Century BC)

The Nash Papyrus was discovered in 1898 by Walter Nash and contains the Ten Commandments, and the Shema of State of israel. The papyrus is dated to the 2nd century BC an was the oldest Hebrew manuscript discovered at the time until the recovery of the Expressionless Sea Scrolls.^{[Bookish Sources 14]}

Neat Isaiah Scroll (third-2nd Century BC)

The Great Isaiah Scroll is a massive coil found in Cave 1 of the Expressionless Sea Scrolls. It contains the words of the prophet Isaiah and, as you will see downwards below, is one of the most meaning Biblical discoveries e'er made. Information technology is dated older than most other scrolls found in the Dead Sea collections, dating back more than than 1000 years from it's oldest counterpart, the Ben Asher Codex, which dates to around 895 AD. ^{[Academic Sources xv]}

Exod-Lev Fragments (quaternary-3rd Century BC)

These are the oldest of the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating back to the "early on Hellenistic Menstruation." They contain fragments of Exodus and Leviticus and were also found in Cavern 4 of the Qumran Caves.^{[Academic Sources xvi]}

Ketef Hinnom Scrolls (7th-6th Century BC)

These incredible discoveries were made in 1979. They are two silvery amulets that were found in the Valley of Hinnom (or Gehenna) and are inscribed with the priestly benediction constitute in Numbers 6:22-27 on them. The amulets engagement to around the 7th or 6th century, making them the earliest attestation of the Sometime Testament.^{[Academic Sources 17]}

Significance of the Dead Body of water Scrolls

Isaiah 53

The Expressionless Sea scrolls (which consists of most of the pre-Christ manuscripts listed above) were initially discovered in 1946 past a group of shepherds at the Qumran caves in the Judean Desert. They were the earliest Old Testament manuscripts to date and still dominate the majority of the oldest copies of the Hebrew Bible to this day. Since the starting time manuscripts were uncovered, there have been hundreds of complete manuscripts recovered and thousands of fragments, 40% of which are from the Onetime Testament.

These discoveries are meaning because they give us an insight into how the text of the Onetime Testament has been transmitted and whether or non we can trust information technology. The Old Attestation dates dorsum 3500 years. It seems logical that we demand bear witness to back upwards it'due south authenticity if we are going to defend the New Testament as well.

The study down below looks at the first 12 verses of Isaiah 53 and how well they have been transmitted over the last 2300 years.

Verse	Swell Isaiah Ringlet (2nd-3rd Century BC)	Aleppo Codex (930 AD)	New International Version (2011 AD)
i	Who has believed our study and the arm of YHWH (1) to whom has it been revealed?	Who would have believed our study? And to whom hath the arm of the LORD been revealed?	Who has believed our message and to whom has the arm of the LORD been revealed?
2	And he shall come up up like a suckling earlier us and as a root from dry ground there is no form to him and no beauty to him and in his being seen and there is no appearance that nosotros should desire him.	For he shot upwards right forth as a sapling, and as a root out of a dry ground; he had no course nor comeliness that we should look upon him, nor beauty that nosotros should delight in him.	He grew up before him like a tender shoot, and like a root out of dry basis. He had no dazzler or majesty to concenter usa to him, naught in his appearance that we should want him.
3	He is despised and rejected of men, a human of sorrows and knowing grief and equally though hiding faces from him he was despised and we did not esteem him.	He was despised, and forsaken of men, a man of pains, and acquainted with disease, and as one from whom men hide their face: he was despised, and nosotros esteemed him not.	He was despised and rejected by men, a man of sorrows, and familiar with suffering. Like i from whom men hide their faces he was despised, and we esteemed him non.
4	Surely our griefs he is bearing and our sorrows he carried them and we esteemed him beaten and struck by God and afflicted.	Surely our diseases he did bear, and our pains he carried; whereas we did esteem him stricken, smitten of God, and afflicted.	Surely he took up our infirmities and carried our sorrows, yet we considered him stricken past God, smitten by him, and afflicted.
5	and he is wounded for our transgressions, and crushed for our iniquities, the correction of our peace was upon him and by his wounds he has healed usa.(2)	Only he was wounded because of our transgressions, he was crushed because of our iniquities: the chastisement of our welfare was upon him, and with his stripes we were healed.	But he was pierced for our transgressions, he was crushed for our iniquities; the punishment that brought us peace was upon him, and by his wounds we are healed.
six	All of us like sheep have wandered each man to his own fashion we have turned and YHWH has acquired to low-cal on him the iniquity of all of us.	All we like sheep did go astray, we turned every i to his own way; and the LORD hath made to low-cal on him the iniquity of us all.	We all, like sheep, have gone astray, each of united states of america has turned to his own style; and the LORD has laid on him the iniquity of us all.
7	He was oppressed and he was afflicted and he did not open his mouth, as a lamb to the slaughter he is brought and as a ewe before her shearers is made dumb he did non open up his mouth.	He was oppressed, though he humbled himself and opened not his mouth; as a lamb that is led to the slaughter, and as a sheep that earlier her shearers is impaired; yea, he opened non his rima oris.	He was oppressed and afflicted, even so he did non open his oral cavity; he was led similar a lamb to the slaughter, and every bit a sheep before her shearers is silent, so he did not open his mouth.
8	From prison and from judgement he was taken and his generation who shall discuss it because he was cut off from the land of the living. Because from the transgressions of his people a wound was to him	By oppression and judgement he was taken away, and with his generation who did reason? for he was cut off out of the country of the living, for the transgression of my people to whom the stroke was due.	By oppression and judgement he was taken away. And who can speak of his descendants? For he was cut off from the land of the living; for the transgression of my people he was stricken.
9	And they gave wicked ones to be his grave and (3) rich ones in his death although he worked no violence neither deceit in his mouth.	And they made his grave with the wicked, and with the rich his tomb; although he had done no violence, neither was any deceit in his mouth.	He was assigned a grave with the wicked, and with the rich in his death, though he had done no violence, nor was any deceit in his rima oris.
x	And YHWH was pleased to crush him and He has acquired him grief. If you volition appoint his soul a sin offering he will meet his seed and he will lengthen his days and the pleasure of YHWH in his paw volition advance.	Nonetheless it pleased the LORD to trounce him past affliction; to come across if his soul would offer itself in restitution, that he might encounter his seed, prolong his days, and that the purpose of the LORD might prosper by his hand:	Nevertheless it was the LORD's volition to crush him and cause him to endure, and though the LORD makes his life a guilt offering, he volition run across his offspring and prolong his days, and the will of the LORD will prosper in his mitt.
11	Of the toil of his soul he shall encounter {+light+} and he shall be satisfied and by his noesis shall he make righteous even my righteous servant for many and their iniquities he will behave.	Of the travail of his soul he shall see to the full, even My servant, who by his knowledge did justify the Righteous One to the many, and their iniquities he did bear.	Subsequently the suffering of his soul, he volition encounter {+the light+} and be satisfied; by his knowledge my righteous servant will justify many, and he will deport their iniquities.
12	Therefore I will apportion to him among the great ones and with the mighty ones he shall split up the spoil because he laid bare to expiry his soul and with the transgressors he was numbered, and he, the sins of many, he bore, and for their transgressions he entreated.	Therefore will I divide him a portion amongst the great, and he shall divide the spoil with the mighty; considering he bared his soul unto death, and was numbered with the transgressors; yet he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.	Therefore I volition give him a portion amidst the peachy, and he will separate the spoils with the strong, because he poured out his life unto death, and was numbered with the transgressors. For he bore the sin of many, and made intercession for the transgressors.

(one) The tetragrammaton (YHWH) is one of the names of the God of Israel used in the Hebrew Bible.

(two) At that place is a scribal thumb print over lines 10 to 12 in the Dead Sea "Isaiah" Scroll (lines x–12 include verses five–7 in modern Bibles). However, while this obscures some letters, all letters are "reconstructible with certainty" (see: http://www.ao.internet/~fmoeller/qum-44.htm);

(3) a scribbled word probably accusative sign "eth"

Norman Geisler states on this passage:

"Of the 166 words in Isaiah 53, at that place are only 17 letters in question. Ten of these letters are only a matter of spelling, which does not affect the sense. 4 more than messages are minor stylistic changes, such as conjunctions. The remaining 3 letters comprise the word "low-cal" which is added in poesy 11, and does not touch the meaning profoundly. Furthermore, this word is supported by the Septuagint and IQ Is [outset cave of Qumran, Isaiah ringlet]. Thus, in one chapter of 166 words, there is simply one word (3 messages) in question after a one thousand years of transmission—and this word does non significantly change the meaning of the passage." ^{[Academic Sources eighteen]}

Messianic Apocalypse Linked with Luke

A not-biblical manuscript found in Cave iv of the Expressionless Sea Scrolls, known equally 4Q521, or the Messianic Apocalypse, details similar aspects constitute in Luke vii and diverse passages in Isaiah^{[Academic Sources 19]}. The manuscript, composed prior to 37 BC, suggests the similarity of the theological traditions both Isaiah and Luke drew on. This strengthens the link between late Judaism and early Christianity.

Isaiah	Luke 7	4Q521
	Cured many (v.22)	Heal the wounded (col.2 5.12)
Blind optics opened (35:five)	Bullheaded come across (v.22)
The lame bound (35:6)	Lame walk (v.22)
Ears of the deafened opened (35:5)	Deaf hear (v.22)
	Dead raised (five.14-fifteen)	Expressionless raised (col.ii five.12)
Apprehensive spirit (57:fifteen)		Humble spirit (col.ii Shaw.6)
Good news to the poor (61:1)	Good news to the poor (v.22	Skilful news to the poor (pg.1 v.six)
The Lord has clothed me (61:10)	Clothed in soft raiment (v.25)	Clothed devotees (col.2 X.7)

See: Hebrew University translation

Also, the authorship and dating of the rest of the Quondam Attestation is irrelevant. The Torah is affirmed by Jesus and the apostles to be from Moses. This is the just one that we take to prove.

Archeology of Linguistic communication

To confirm that someone could fifty-fifty write the Torah at the fourth dimension given in the genealogies (around 1500 BC), we would have to provide evidence for four categories for the language of the Hebrews:

Information technology must be a language that was:

In use at the time of the Exodus
In the region of Egypt
Using the ability of an alphabet
And in a grade like Hebrew

The idea behind the Documentary Hypothesis, a theory from Julius Wellhausen in the late 19th century that states there were four independent authors of the Torah, is that there is somehow no archaeological evidence of written languages before the time of the Phoenicians, around the 11th century. Nevertheless, even non-Biblical writings deflate this as nosotros having writings such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, discovered simply a few years before Wellhausen published his theory.

There have been a number of other discoveries to back upwards the merits that the Hebrews would have been able to read and write. Flinders and Hilda Petrie made the discovery of "Proto-Sinaitic" inscriptions in the Sinai Peninsula in the early 20th century. Paul D. LeBlanc, professor of faith at Ottawa University, stated concerning the language of the inscriptions constitute be the Petries:

"... my conclusions identify me in a Semitic-speaking world where Proto-Sinaitic scribes, probable working in the mines of Serabit el-Khadim, were writing virtually their travels plans by composing their messages in obscure dialects or wholesomely unknown lanuages... Nevertheless, whatever proper name exist ascribed to the Semitic linguistic communication in question, equally has been shown indeed closely relates known ones and, as such, tin can still be deciphered and understood." ^{[Academic Sources 20]}

Orly Goldwasser affirms that these early on inscriptions, dating as far back equally the 17th century could have been written by early Israelites.^{[Bookish Sources 21]} And then we know that the base language that led to Semitic subdivisions similar Hebrew, originated in Egypt during or later on the 17th century.

Fergus Sharman writes concerning the origin of the Semitic languages.

"The Semitic and Cushtic languages have Bantu roots in their vocabularies and their origins in Africa are related since they belong to a wider group of languages called Afro-Asiatic." ^{[Academic Sources 22]}

Sir Alan Gardiner, in 1961, wrote that the Egyptian language's relationship with Hamitic lanaguages. He likewise wrote that the relationship between Egyptian and Semitic dialects is "unmistakable, if indeed not greater" than that of Hamitic relationships.^{[Bookish Sources 23]}

With these, we can conclude that it is very plausible that the Hebrews would accept not only been able to write, but did write.

Obviously, Moses was not effectually to witness Cosmos or the Inundation or Sodom and Gomorrah, however, he would have recieved the data from the Toledots that were passed downward to him from Adam, Noah, Shem, etc would accept passed downward the information to Moses. Moses would take then written the Torah down and so during the time of Josiah (effectually the mid 7th century) they would accept been compiled in the form that we have them today.

Internal Affirmation

The Torah affirms Moses is the author.

Exodus 17:14 - "And the Lord said unto Moses, 'Write this for a memorial in a volume, and rehearse it in the ears of Joshua: for I will utterly put out the remembrance of Amalek from under sky."

Exodus 24:4 - "And Moses wrote all the words of the Lord, and rose upwardly early in the morning, and built an chantry under the loma, and twelve pillars, according to the twelve tribes of Israel.

Exodus 34:27 - "And the Lord siad unto Moses, 'You will write these words: for according to the tenor of these words I have made a covenant with yous and with State of israel."

Numbers 33:2 - "And Moses wrote their goings out co-ordinate to their journeys by the commandment of the Lord: and these are their journeys according to their goings out."

Deuteronomy 31:nine - "And Moses wrote this law, and delivered it unto the priests the sons of Levi, which bare the ark of the covenant of the Lord, and unto all the elders of Israel

New Attestation Affirmation

Even Jesus and the apostles assert Mosaic authorship.

Luke 20:28 - "...Teacher, Moses wrote unto usa, 'If any homo's brother die, having a married woman, and he dice without children, that his brother should take his wife and raise up offspring unto his brother.'" (Paralleled by Marking 12:19)

John 5:46 - "For if you believed Moses, you would accept believed me: for he wrote of me.

Acts 6:xiv - "For we take heard him say that this Jesus of Nazareth shall destroy this place and shall change the customs which Moses delivered u.s.."

2 Corinthians iii:fifteen - "But fifty-fifty unto this day, when Moses is read, the vail is upon their hearts.

Addressing Arguments Against Reliability

Disagreement Between Manuscripts.

Having only given you lot enough of manuscripts for the Quondam Testament, I would be a deceiver if I were to leave out the fact that those manuscripts and fragments do not 100% totally concord on everything. There are parts that are left out, parts that say different things and all sorts of other factors that sceptics love to selection at:

Firstly, we must be honest on the kind of variances in the text. Every bit we saw in the Isaiah Scroll up above, autonomously from one word in question that does non severely affect the meaning of the passage, any other variances are minor and simple stylistic changes.

Secondly, scribal fault is bound to happen. The people who wrote the originals down were inspired by the Holy Spirit, not the ones who copied them down for many centuries to come. People will come forth and deliberately change things to suit their agendas. Now, nosotros may ask, "Why would God let them practice that?" To put information technology simply, I don't know. The Bible calls it the mystery of godliness for a reason. If he wishes to intervene to ensure his Word will survive and so he volition. I don't know why God volition allow certain scribes to alter his Give-and-take. But God never promised that his word would never exist corrupted (Islam does however make such a claim). Jesus says that his word will never pass abroad, which means that it will be extant in some form or some other.
Thirdly, there is no evidence that we have lost any part of the Old Testament. Sure, manuscripts disagree on stuff. So what? We have the extant versions based on the collections of literally thousands of manuscripts and fragments coming together and edifice the bigger film. And the situation with the New Testament is fifty-fifty amend, with 5800 Greek Manuscripts and around 25,000 manuscripts in full.^{[Bookish Sources 24]}

Equally I land in the Reliability of the New Testament, the vast bulk of "variances" in the text are not meaningful or damaging to the text or fundamental Christian beliefs.

Equally Bart Ehrman fifty-fifty admits:

"...the essential Christian behavior are not effected by textual variants in the manuscript tradition of the New Testament." ^{[Bookish Sources 25]}

If this is true for the New Testament, for which we have much more copies of than the Old Testament, and then we can exist pretty sure it is true for the Onetime Attestation besides.

Sources

Academic Sources

↑ Giles R. Anderson - Tradition Kept: The Literature of the Samaritans, p. 11
↑ Marina Rustow -The Lost Archive Traces of a Caliphate in a Cairo Synagogue, pg. 451
↑ Retrieved from https://www.lib.cam.ac.uk/files/genizah_77.pdf
↑ Charles Kannengiesser -Handbook of Patristic Exegesis, p. 129
↑ The Text of the New Testament, pg. eleven
↑ F. H. A. Scrivener - Vi Lectures on the Text of the New Attestation and the Aboriginal Manuscripts, p. 54.
↑ Bruce Metzger -Manuscripts of the Greek Bible: An Introduction to Palaeography, pp. 76–78.
↑ Kurt Aland, Barbra Aland - The Text of the New Testament: An Introduction to the Disquisitional Editions and to the Theory and Practice of Modern Textual Criticism. p. 109
↑ Retrieved from https://www.uhl.air conditioning/case-masadas-scrolls/
↑ Nahal Hever manuscripts from the Herodian Era - https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-annal/search#q='nahal%20hever'+AND+catamenia:'Herodian'
↑ Retrieved from https://world wide web.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/prototype/B-295662
↑ Retrieved from https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/manuscript/11Q1-i
↑ Retrieved from https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-archive/manuscript/4Q135-1
↑ Paul Wegner - A Educatee's Guide to Textual Criticism of the Bible: Its History, Methods and Results, pg. 148
↑ Gaza Vermes - The Complete Expressionless Bounding main Scrolls in English language, pg. 12
↑ Retrieved from https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/explore-the-annal/manuscript/4Q17-1
↑ Gabriel Barkay, Andrew G. Vaughn, Marilyn J. Lundberg, Bruce Zuckerman - The Amulets from Ketef Hinnmon, pg. 41, Retreived from https://www.jstor.org/stable/4150106?seq=one
↑ Geisler & Nix - A General Introduction to the Bible, p. 430.
↑ Retrieved from https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-artifacts/dead-sea-scrolls/the-dead-sea-scrolls-and-the-new-attestation/
↑ Paul D. LeBlanc - Deciphering the Proto-Sinaitic Script, pg. 181
↑ Orly Goldwasser -How the Alphabet Was Built-in from Hieroglyphs, Biblical Archeology Review, Biblical Archeology Society. 36 (1)
↑ Fergus Shaman - Linguistic Ties Between Ancient Egyptian and Bantu: Uncovering Symbiotic Affinities and Relationships, pg 27
↑ Alan Gardiner - The Egypt of Pharaohs: An Introduction, pg. 11
↑ Daniel B. Wallace -Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament: Manuscript, Patristic, and Apocryphal Testify, ch. 1, pg. 28
↑ Bart Ehrman -Misquoting Jesus, pg. 252

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